The
Influence of Technology in Sports Performance1
Ng Wei Kiat Matthew (matthew.ng.2013@accountancy.smu.edu.sg),
1st Year student, Bachelor of Accountancy, Singapore Management University
Executive
Summary
This paper seeks to explore how technology has
influenced performance in the sporting scene. The author will be focusing on how
sports equipment, training methods, and diet have evolved from the past to
present, and also how they contributed to the improved performances in
athletes. Furthermore this paper will delve into the future possibilities of technology
in this sporting world and the ethical, legal, and socioeconomic implications
that follow. Finally, the author will give his take on the future possible controversies
of technology in sports.
1
Introduction
Since time immemorial, sporting performances have
been used as a stage for countries to display their power and strength. Back in
1936, Adolf Hitler, leader of Nazi Germany, used the Olympics as a stage to
promote Aryan nationalism with his ideological belief of racial supremacy
(Kessler, 2011). Until more recently in the 2008 and 2012 Olympics, we can see
China and the United States of America vying for the top spot in the medal
tallies ("Olympic Medal Tables", 2012). Sports also possesses this special
attraction that can draw people to it. Every year, billions of people tune in
to the Olympic Games and many other sporting events around the globe. The
revenue that goes around is thus very substantial. With the world’s attention
on these events, this often means high stakes for athletes who will want to
outdo one another using all means available, which naturally includes the use
of technology.
As countries and athletes continuously want to emerge
victorious in these sporting events, technology used in sports is constantly
kept updated. It follows that sporting performances have been improving
throughout the years. Hence we can say that sports will always be at the
forefront of any technological advancement.
This paper examines how technology has improved
performance in the sporting scene since the first ancient Olympic Games in the
7th century BC. The focus of the paper will be on the three main
areas; namely, sports equipment, training methods, and diet. First, it will
delve into the gradual evolution of the abovementioned areas over the centuries
up till the current situation, including the latest technology that is being
used in sports to improve performances. Next, future considerations in terms of
ethical, legal and socioeconomic implications on the dependence on technology
are also discussed as athletes challenge the boundaries to achieve their
performance breakthrough. Finally, the author gives his take on the future
controversies of technology in sports.
The limitations of this paper include the lack of in-depth explanation
into the specific technologies used to enhance sports performance as that would
require specialized knowledge in fields including material engineering, physics
and nutrition. There is also the difficulty of comparing different sports as
technologies have differing impacts on each of them. Nevertheless, the author
has, to the best of his abilities and knowledge, provided his analysis,
evaluations and insights throughout the paper, especially in the section on future
considerations.
2
From Past to Present
|
Year
|
1900
|
1912
|
1924
|
1936
|
1948
|
1960
|
1972
|
1984
|
1996
|
2008
|
|
Winner
|
Frank Jarvis (USA)
|
Ralph Craig (USA)
|
Harold Abrahams (GBR)
|
Jesse Owens (USA)
|
Harrison Dillard (USA)
|
Armin Hary (GER)
|
Valery Borzov (URS)
|
Carl Lewis (USA)
|
Donovan Bailey (CAN)
|
Usain Bolt (JAM)
|
|
Result(s)
|
11.0
|
10.8
|
10.6
|
10.3
|
10.3
|
10.2
|
10.14
|
9.99
|
9.84
|
9.69
|
Table 1. Olympic 100m Men Gold
medal results over the years from 1900.
Adapted
from Database Olympics (2011)
In table 1, we can see that the results of the 100m
Men track event at the Olympic Games have been steadily improving since the
1900s. This is just one of many examples of sporting records being broken
throughout the years. Technology is arguably the main factor for this marked
improvement in athletes’ performances. This section of the report will examine
how technology does this. It is divided into three segments: Sports equipment,
Training methods and Diet. For each of the segments there will be a brief
overview of the historical situation which is contrasted with the present
situation. Each segment will also be substantiated with illustrations and
examples to make understanding easier for the reader.
2.1 Sports equipment
Sports equipment is a general term for any object used for the purpose
of sports. In ancient times, before the mass commercialization of sports, most
games were actually created for leisure using whatever available products. Hence,
natural materials like wood, leather, and even animal organs featured heavily
in early sports equipment. As seen in Figure 1, the first soccer balls made in
the 16th century composed of an outer leather cover and a pig’s
bladder which functioned as the air-containment unit (“Oldest
football to”, 2006). The first tennis racquets in the 18th
century were made of wood (“History of Tennis”, n.d.) and its strings were produced
from animal gut (“natural gut”, 2003). These simple materials provided only a
basic platform for people to enjoy sports when comfort and performance was
secondary.
Sports gradually
progressed and became more organized and competitive. This mass
commercialization resulted in the influx of technology and the routine use of
novel materials. Sports equipment are then repeatedly enhanced with the latest
materials and workmanship to maximize the athlete’s performance. Thus, by the
20th century, research and development by many sports equipment
companies have resulted in materials such as titanium and aluminium alloys, neoprene,
and Kevlar being more commonly used (Caine et al., 2012).
These synthetic materials contributed significantly to the improved
performances of the athletes.
In 1896, American athlete Bill Hoyt won the gold medal in the pole
vault event during the first modern Olympics in Athens, Greece (Caine
et al., 2012).
In today’s context, the 3.30 m jump height that got him the gold
medal would fall significantly short of the minimum requirement to even
qualify for the 2012 Olympic Games. The present Olympic pole vault record is a
world apart at 5.96 m, and it is set by Australian athlete Steven Hooker
in 2008. The stark difference between the two athletes in this case will be the
pole that they used. Hoyt achieved his win in the 1896 Olympics with a fully
wooden pole while the current Olympic pole vault record was achieved with a
pole that is constructed with highly engineered composite materials (Caine
et al., 2012).
This sharp improvement in performance is also reflected in Figure 1. As the
pole’s material progressed from wooden to metal and finally carbon fibre,
Olympic records have improved as well. Hence we can attribute this improvement
to the changes in the material of the pole.
Similarly in the swimming arena, we have seen records broken at almost
every Olympic Games. This is largely due to swimsuit technology getting more
advanced as it mimics the characteristics of shark skin and provides the
swimmer with reduced surface and form drag. The suit allows swimmers to be more
hydrodynamic and subsequently faster. Then came the emergence of polyurethane
suits. In the beginning of 2008, leading swimsuit manufacturer Speedo came up
with the LZR Racer. The suit was made of 50% polyurethane and designed with
help of the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) (Wilson, 2012). It was hailed as an
innovative technological breakthrough in the swimming world. The results did
not disappoint as 25 world records fell in the 2008 Olympics, and most of them
were broken by swimmers wearing LZRs or other suits with a similar technology. On
the following year, 100% polyurethane suits were introduced and 43 world
records fell at the World Championships in Rome (Wilson, 2012). After that
incident, the world governing body for swimming, FINA, decided to ban all
swimsuits with such technology. Now, not only do these suits have to be made of
traditional fabric, but they also cannot extend past the knees. And as for men,
any surface above the belly button cannot be covered by the suits. (Haake, 2012)
2.2 Training Methods
Besides the equipment that they use, training
methods have traditionally contributed to improvement in sports performance.
Athletes train to both improve their physical conditioning as well as to
familiarise their routine on the actual day. In the olden days, athletes merely
train repetitively and hope to achieve the best result on competition day.
However, athletes of today are exposed to new and innovative training methods
that make use of the latest technology. One such illustration will be the rise
of video recording in sports, where athletes watch their own and their
opponent’s performance so as to better their own performances and get an edge
over their rivals. Other more advanced technologies include the detailed digital
analysis of an athlete’s performance based information collected in competition
and in training.
Technological advancements enabled us to come up
with sophisticated data analytical methods such as data mining, where the focus
is upon exploration and developing new insights to increase performance levels.
These methods are becoming increasingly useful in analysing elite sports
performance due to the competitive nature of these events where even the finest
margins are extremely significant (Ofoghi et al., 2013). For instance, Figure 4
is a heat map that shows the player movement and winning shots position of both
athletes at the 2012 London Olympics. By using these information, opposing players
and coaches can tell at which part of the court is the mapped tennis player
most likely to hit the winning shot and as a result, avoid hitting their shots
to that location. Another example would be in soccer. To understand the common
mistakes made by a defence of a soccer team, the coach may be interested in
knowing the position of players at the time that certain mistakes were related
to them. The coach can then find the best strategy to reduce the frequency of
mistakes so as to let the team have the highest chance of success (Ofoghi et
al., 2013).
Another form of innovative training method would be
the use of technology to replicate in-game scenarios that the athletes can use
to even out their weaknesses and mistakes in the sport. Developed in the 1970s
(“Computer Simulations”, 2013), such computer simulation technology is a
process where the specific anticipated effects that the athlete will experience
during performance are replicated through a simulator. The outcome of an event
can then be predicted by using data collected from previous similar events. Today,
the computer simulation technology has improved significantly and is widely
used in individual sports such as running, to assist the athlete to achieve
greater biomechanical efficiency (“Computer Simulations”, 2013). More recently,
team sports have also started to use computer simulation as training tools. An
example would be in the 2013 America’s Cup yacht race where teams used computer
simulation of a particular course to permit them to race the event in advance
(Niccolai, 2013). This allows them to develop and fine-tune their strategies
and cut down on mistakes on the actual day. Another example can be seen in the
short film (McDowall, 2011), where star soccer player Cristiano Ronaldo is
subjected to several tests of his capabilities. The technology used in that
video can be extrapolated to be used in training athletes as conditions such as
lighting can be controlled and the athlete can only rely on their feeling and
sense of anticipation to get contact on the ball. This is especially applicable
in soccer games when soccer players are focused on their opponent’s movement
such that they cannot keep their eyes on the ball the whole time.
2.3 Diet
In addition, diet plays a huge role in an athlete’s
performance. In the past, athletes do not have a specific diet catered to their
needs and ate without much restriction in food choices. However, in the early 20th
century, researchers discovered the effects that vitamins and minerals have on
the human body (“A History”, n.d.). Since then, the study of sport nutrition over
the years has led to a better understanding of how diet can increase
performance levels. This has led to the emergence of sport nutrition products
that includes food, drinks, and performance enhancing supplements designed to
deliver nutritional benefits for athletes. The athlete’s diet is then improved
to make sure there are enough vitamins and nutrients for the growth and repair
of muscles.
Athletes require energy to provide an immediate
boost on their performance day. This energy can come from stimulants such as
caffeine. Studies have shown that caffeine reduces fatigue and increases
alertness, leading to better performances (Burke, 2008). Besides stimulants,
performance enhancing drugs like anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, and erythropoietin
have also came into the limelight in recent years. Anabolic steroids and human
growth hormone increases the rate of protein synthesis within cells, leading to
increased size and strength of muscles. Erythropoietin, on the
other hand, increases production of red blood cells and haemoglobin, resulting
in an increased flow of oxygen to the muscles (“Performance-enhancing drugs”,
2012). However, some of the effects of
using performance enhancing drugs include drastic fluctuations in cholesterol
levels, high blood pressure, liver failure, heart problems, and even death
(Helmenstine, n.d.). As a result, their use is banned by most major sporting
bodies (Quinn, 2013).
3
Future Considerations
While the author has explored some of the uses of
technology in sports, the list is certainly not exhaustive. Projecting into the
future, more technologies will certainly be available and be used widely in
sports. This can bring about a situation where athletes are competing based on
the technology that they use and not their true capabilities. Thus this section
it will examine some of the considerations that the author believes could arise
if technology is being used extensively to enhance sports performance. These
considerations relate to the ethical and legal issues that arise, and the
socioeconomic implications of using technology in sports. Lastly, the author
will also give his views on technological controversies that could happen in
the near future.
3.1 Ethical and legal issues
While sporting achievements can be measured in
absolute terms, the extensive use of technology in sports presents some ethical
issues where the lines are blurred. We can undoubtedly enhance athlete
performances by permitting the use of technology, but where should the limits
be established, or should there be no restrictions at all? The author of this
paper feels that the line should be drawn to ensure that it is the people and
not technology that is competing.
The golf balls with unique dimple patterns, stiffer
synthetic tennis rackets and carbon fibre vaulting poles all lead to better
athlete performances (Froes, 1997). Hence these advancements in sports
equipment are widely accepted until recently when the world governing body for
swimming, FINA, banned the use of polyurethane swimsuits. This is because athletes
were breaking an astonishing number of world records because of the
‘artificial’ drag and buoyancy the suits gave them (Haake, 2012). As we can
see, Sports engineering and technology plays a crucial role in sports. New
technologies can keep a sport alive and relevant, but its overuse can result in
a loss of credibility as in the case of swimming. Hence, respective ruling
bodies of sport have to take charge to decide if a technology can be accepted
in the sport. They will also need to keep an eye on the latest technologies and
attain the skills to understand the implications that come along with them.
Next, we will move on to human enhancement with performance
enhancing drugs. The consumption of such drugs or doping, is banned by most
major sporting bodies (Quinn, 2013). Besides being detrimental to the user’s
health, doping is also widely regarded as unethical. Once an athlete increases
his or her performance through doping, other athletes feel compelled to do the
same in order to keep up (Horton, n.d.). As a result, athletes will no longer
be competing to measure their abilities but rather who can artificially enhance
their bodies more in order to win. Hence, what we see from the athletes may not
be an actual reflection of their true abilities. Naturally, the public abhors
doping as they feel that they are being cheated by their favourite athletes. One
such example would be the Lance Armstrong doping incident where he is stripped
of his seven Tour de France titles and barred from cycling for life. Although
some were still sympathetic towards his situation, the vast majority of the public
were disillusioned as they felt cheated by his feats (“Some Livestrong Donors”, 2012).
3.2 Socioeconomic impact
The use of technology in sports will bring about
socioeconomic implications on society. Firstly, sports equipment that makes use
of the latest technology will not come cheap. Hence, it will only be affordable
to the elite and rich athletes. Without any sponsors, poor athletes will then
be unable to afford them. Consequently, they are at a disadvantage at the
technology front. This can lead to a vicious cycle where only the rich will
have access to these technologies. The poorer athletes will then be unable to
compete on equal footing with the richer athletes regardless of their aptitude
for the sport. If not monitored properly, this could lead to a divide between
the haves and the have-nots. Athletes from richer backgrounds or more affluent
countries will dominate the top of the charts for their respective sports while
athletes from poorer backgrounds will find it increasingly difficult to break
into the professional scene. As a result, poorer athletes will have an even
slimmer chance of freeing themselves from the poverty cycle.
Many sports rules committees want to prevent this
from happening so as to let all athletes compete on a more equal footing.
Hence, a more reasonable compromise is to keep their sport affordable to many
athletes, rather than to the elite few. An example would be disc wheels which
were initially banned from bicycling competition in the Olympics because they
were so costly that most cyclists found them unaffordable (Froes, 1997). Even
for the Paralympics, there is the issue of advanced technology and high costs.
The wheelchairs incorporate the use of aerospace carbon fibres and titanium
into their design. Its suspension is also computer designed and specially
customised for the athlete. In addition, there is a specific chair for each
sport. Tennis wheelchairs are built with sharply angled back wheels so the
athlete can move rapidly from side to side. Basketball wheelchairs have highly
propped seats while the point guard have more slant in their wheelchairs to
enable them to rotate quickly. The price of each of these wheelchairs will
easily hit $3,000 USD (Froes, 1997). Therefore, sport committees have to keep
an eye on the price of such equipment to ensure that it does not become too
unaffordable for the common athlete.
3.3 Future Technological Controversies
Having considered the legal and ethical issues, as
well as the socioeconomic impacts that technology brings to sports, there will
still be some grey areas in the use of technology that remains controversial.
One such area worth discussing will be the use of prosthetics in sports. Currently,
disabled athletes can choose to compete in the Olympics and history has shown
that many have done so before with assistance from prosthetic limbs (Paramaguru,
2012). One such example would be Oscar Pistorius who made history in 2012 by
becoming the first double amputee to compete in the Olympics (Paramaguru, 2012).
Moreover, at the current rate of development, engineers believe that prosthetic
limbs will soon enable disabled athletes to run faster than their able-bodied
counterparts (“Paralympians to out-perform”, 2012). When that happens, it would
not be fair to able-bodied athletes if the prosthetic limbs of disabled
athletes provide such a huge advantage for them.
Hence, although it may seem harsh and discriminatory,
the author feels that a clear criterion should be set up for athletes to
participate in the Olympics and disabled athletes who rely heavily on the use
of prosthetics should be confined to the Paralympics. The criterion can then be
decided by the sporting federations. This way, it will not be the technology
but people that is competing against one another. There will also not be
instances where both disabled and able-bodied athletes use technology
excessively in order to get an edge over one another. The beauty and fairness
of sports will then be maintained.
4
Conclusion
In summary, technology has always been used in
sports. However, it is only recently that this issue has come into the
spotlight because of the realization of the infinite possibilities of technology.
Currently, there have been significant improvements in the sophistication of
technology that is being applied to sports. Thus, we have to handle the implications
that these new technological advancements bring. On one hand, although they can
assist athletes in breaking records and to improve their performances, we must be
firm to not let technology overtake our human touch. After all, what we want to
see is not technology, but rather humans competing against one another in the
sporting arena. Only when this fairness is achieved in the sporting arena can
we truly enjoy watching the sports that we love.
5
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