Individual Paper Final

The Influence of Technology in Sports Performance¹

Ng Wei Kiat Matthew (matthew.ng.2013@accountancy.smu.edu.sg), 1st Year student, Bachelor of Accountancy, Singapore Management University

Executive Summary

This paper seeks to explore how technology has influenced performance in the sporting scene. The author will be focusing on how sports equipment, training methods, and diet have evolved from the past to present, and also how they contributed to the improved performances in athletes. Furthermore this paper will delve into the future possibilities of technology in this sporting world and the ethical, legal, and socioeconomic implications that follow. Finally, the author will give his take on the future possible controversies of technology in sports.

1 Introduction

Since time immemorial, sporting performances have been used as a stage for countries to display their power and strength. Back in 1936, Adolf Hitler, leader of Nazi Germany, used the Olympics as a stage to promote Aryan nationalism with his ideological belief of racial supremacy (Kessler, 2011). Until more recently in the 2008 and 2012 Olympics, we can see China and the United States of America vying for the top spot in the medal tallies ("Olympic Medal Tables", 2012). Sports also possesses this special attraction that can draw people to it. Every year, billions of people tune in to the Olympic Games and many other sporting events around the globe. The revenue that goes around is thus very substantial. With the world’s attention on these events, this often means high stakes for athletes who will want to outdo one another using all means available, which naturally includes the use of technology. 

As countries and athletes continuously want to emerge victorious in these sporting events, technology used in sports is constantly kept updated. It follows that sporting performances have been improving throughout the years. Hence we can say that sports will always be at the forefront of any technological advancement.  

This paper examines how technology has improved performance in the sporting scene since the first ancient Olympic Games in the 7^th century BC. The focus of the paper will be on the three main areas; namely, sports equipment, training methods, and diet. First, it will delve into the gradual evolution of the abovementioned areas over the centuries up till the current situation, including the latest technology that is being used in sports to improve performances. Next, future considerations in terms of ethical, legal and socioeconomic implications on the dependence on technology are also discussed as athletes challenge the boundaries to achieve their performance breakthrough. Finally, the author gives his take on the future controversies of technology in sports.

The limitations of this paper include the lack of in-depth explanation into the specific technologies used to enhance sports performance as that would require specialized knowledge in fields including material engineering, physics and nutrition. There is also the difficulty of comparing different sports as technologies have differing impacts on each of them. Nevertheless, the author has, to the best of his abilities and knowledge, provided his analysis, evaluations and insights throughout the paper, especially in the section on future considerations.

                 

2 From Past to Present

Year	1900	1912	1924	1936	1948	1960	1972	1984	1996	2008
Winner	Frank Jarvis (USA)	Ralph Craig (USA)	Harold Abrahams (GBR)	Jesse Owens (USA)	Harrison Dillard (USA)	Armin Hary (GER)	Valery Borzov (URS)	Carl Lewis (USA)	Donovan Bailey (CAN)	Usain Bolt (JAM)
Result(s)	11.0	10.8	10.6	10.3	10.3	10.2	10.14	9.99	9.84	9.69

Table 1. Olympic 100m Men Gold medal results over the years from 1900.

Adapted from Database Olympics (2011)

In table 1, we can see that the results of the 100m Men track event at the Olympic Games have been steadily improving since the 1900s. This is just one of many examples of sporting records being broken throughout the years. Technology is arguably the main factor for this marked improvement in athletes’ performances. This section of the report will examine how technology does this. It is divided into three segments: Sports equipment, Training methods and Diet. For each of the segments there will be a brief overview of the historical situation which is contrasted with the present situation. Each segment will also be substantiated with illustrations and examples to make understanding easier for the reader.

2.1 Sports equipment

Sports equipment is a general term for any object used for the purpose of sports. In ancient times, before the mass commercialization of sports, most games were actually created for leisure using whatever available products. Hence, natural materials like wood, leather, and even animal organs featured heavily in early sports equipment. As seen in Figure 1, the first soccer balls made in the 16^th century composed of an outer leather cover and a pig’s bladder which functioned as the air-containment unit (“Oldest football to”, 2006). The first tennis racquets in the 18^th century were made of wood (“History of Tennis”, n.d.) and its strings were produced from animal gut (“natural gut”, 2003). These simple materials provided only a basic platform for people to enjoy sports when comfort and performance was secondary.

Sports gradually progressed and became more organized and competitive. This mass commercialization resulted in the influx of technology and the routine use of novel materials. Sports equipment are then repeatedly enhanced with the latest materials and workmanship to maximize the athlete’s performance. Thus, by the 20^th century, research and development by many sports equipment companies have resulted in materials such as titanium and aluminium alloys, neoprene, and Kevlar being more commonly used (Caine et al., 2012). These synthetic materials contributed significantly to the improved performances of the athletes.

In 1896, American athlete Bill Hoyt won the gold medal in the pole vault event during the first modern Olympics in Athens, Greece (Caine et al., 2012). In today’s context, the 3.30 m jump height that got him the gold medal would fall significantly short of the minimum requirement to even qualify for the 2012 Olympic Games. The present Olympic pole vault record is a world apart at 5.96 m, and it is set by Australian athlete Steven Hooker in 2008. The stark difference between the two athletes in this case will be the pole that they used. Hoyt achieved his win in the 1896 Olympics with a fully wooden pole while the current Olympic pole vault record was achieved with a pole that is constructed with highly engineered composite materials (Caine et al., 2012). This sharp improvement in performance is also reflected in Figure 1. As the pole’s material progressed from wooden to metal and finally carbon fibre, Olympic records have improved as well. Hence we can attribute this improvement to the changes in the material of the pole.

Similarly in the swimming arena, we have seen records broken at almost every Olympic Games. This is largely due to swimsuit technology getting more advanced as it mimics the characteristics of shark skin and provides the swimmer with reduced surface and form drag. The suit allows swimmers to be more hydrodynamic and subsequently faster. Then came the emergence of polyurethane suits. In the beginning of 2008, leading swimsuit manufacturer Speedo came up with the LZR Racer. The suit was made of 50% polyurethane and designed with help of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (Wilson, 2012). It was hailed as an innovative technological breakthrough in the swimming world. The results did not disappoint as 25 world records fell in the 2008 Olympics, and most of them were broken by swimmers wearing LZRs or other suits with a similar technology. On the following year, 100% polyurethane suits were introduced and 43 world records fell at the World Championships in Rome (Wilson, 2012). After that incident, the world governing body for swimming, FINA, decided to ban all swimsuits with such technology. Now, not only do these suits have to be made of traditional fabric, but they also cannot extend past the knees. And as for men, any surface above the belly button cannot be covered by the suits. (Haake, 2012)

2.2 Training Methods

Besides the equipment that they use, training methods have traditionally contributed to improvement in sports performance. Athletes train to both improve their physical conditioning as well as to familiarise their routine on the actual day. In the olden days, athletes merely train repetitively and hope to achieve the best result on competition day. However, athletes of today are exposed to new and innovative training methods that make use of the latest technology. One such illustration will be the rise of video recording in sports, where athletes watch their own and their opponent’s performance so as to better their own performances and get an edge over their rivals. Other more advanced technologies include the detailed digital analysis of an athlete’s performance based information collected in competition and in training.

Technological advancements enabled us to come up with sophisticated data analytical methods such as data mining, where the focus is upon exploration and developing new insights to increase performance levels. These methods are becoming increasingly useful in analysing elite sports performance due to the competitive nature of these events where even the finest margins are extremely significant (Ofoghi et al., 2013). For instance, Figure 4 is a heat map that shows the player movement and winning shots position of both athletes at the 2012 London Olympics. By using these information, opposing players and coaches can tell at which part of the court is the mapped tennis player most likely to hit the winning shot and as a result, avoid hitting their shots to that location. Another example would be in soccer. To understand the common mistakes made by a defence of a soccer team, the coach may be interested in knowing the position of players at the time that certain mistakes were related to them. The coach can then find the best strategy to reduce the frequency of mistakes so as to let the team have the highest chance of success (Ofoghi et al., 2013).

Another form of innovative training method would be the use of technology to replicate in-game scenarios that the athletes can use to even out their weaknesses and mistakes in the sport. Developed in the 1970s (“Computer Simulations”, 2013), such computer simulation technology is a process where the specific anticipated effects that the athlete will experience during performance are replicated through a simulator. The outcome of an event can then be predicted by using data collected from previous similar events. Today, the computer simulation technology has improved significantly and is widely used in individual sports such as running, to assist the athlete to achieve greater biomechanical efficiency (“Computer Simulations”, 2013). More recently, team sports have also started to use computer simulation as training tools. An example would be in the 2013 America’s Cup yacht race where teams used computer simulation of a particular course to permit them to race the event in advance (Niccolai, 2013). This allows them to develop and fine-tune their strategies and cut down on mistakes on the actual day. Another example can be seen in the short film (McDowall, 2011), where star soccer player Cristiano Ronaldo is subjected to several tests of his capabilities. The technology used in that video can be extrapolated to be used in training athletes as conditions such as lighting can be controlled and the athlete can only rely on their feeling and sense of anticipation to get contact on the ball. This is especially applicable in soccer games when soccer players are focused on their opponent’s movement such that they cannot keep their eyes on the ball the whole time.

2.3 Diet

In addition, diet plays a huge role in an athlete’s performance. In the past, athletes do not have a specific diet catered to their needs and ate without much restriction in food choices. However, in the early 20^th century, researchers discovered the effects that vitamins and minerals have on the human body (“A History”, n.d.). Since then, the study of sport nutrition over the years has led to a better understanding of how diet can increase performance levels. This has led to the emergence of sport nutrition products that includes food, drinks, and performance enhancing supplements designed to deliver nutritional benefits for athletes. The athlete’s diet is then improved to make sure there are enough vitamins and nutrients for the growth and repair of muscles.

Athletes require energy to provide an immediate boost on their performance day. This energy can come from stimulants such as caffeine. Studies have shown that caffeine reduces fatigue and increases alertness, leading to better performances (Burke, 2008). Besides stimulants, performance enhancing drugs like anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, and erythropoietin have also came into the limelight in recent years. Anabolic steroids and human growth hormone increases the rate of protein synthesis within cells, leading to increased size and strength of muscles. Erythropoietin, on the other hand, increases production of red blood cells and haemoglobin, resulting in an increased flow of oxygen to the muscles (“Performance-enhancing drugs”, 2012).  However, some of the effects of using performance enhancing drugs include drastic fluctuations in cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, liver failure, heart problems, and even death (Helmenstine, n.d.). As a result, their use is banned by most major sporting bodies (Quinn, 2013).

3 Future Considerations

While the author has explored some of the uses of technology in sports, the list is certainly not exhaustive. Projecting into the future, more technologies will certainly be available and be used widely in sports. This can bring about a situation where athletes are competing based on the technology that they use and not their true capabilities. Thus this section it will examine some of the considerations that the author believes could arise if technology is being used extensively to enhance sports performance. These considerations relate to the ethical and legal issues that arise, and the socioeconomic implications of using technology in sports. Lastly, the author will also give his views on technological controversies that could happen in the near future.

3.1 Ethical and legal issues     

While sporting achievements can be measured in absolute terms, the extensive use of technology in sports presents some ethical issues where the lines are blurred. We can undoubtedly enhance athlete performances by permitting the use of technology, but where should the limits be established, or should there be no restrictions at all? The author of this paper feels that the line should be drawn to ensure that it is the people and not technology that is competing.

The golf balls with unique dimple patterns, stiffer synthetic tennis rackets and carbon fibre vaulting poles all lead to better athlete performances (Froes, 1997). Hence these advancements in sports equipment are widely accepted until recently when the world governing body for swimming, FINA, banned the use of polyurethane swimsuits. This is because athletes were breaking an astonishing number of world records because of the ‘artificial’ drag and buoyancy the suits gave them (Haake, 2012). As we can see, Sports engineering and technology plays a crucial role in sports. New technologies can keep a sport alive and relevant, but its overuse can result in a loss of credibility as in the case of swimming. Hence, respective ruling bodies of sport have to take charge to decide if a technology can be accepted in the sport. They will also need to keep an eye on the latest technologies and attain the skills to understand the implications that come along with them.

Next, we will move on to human enhancement with performance enhancing drugs. The consumption of such drugs or doping, is banned by most major sporting bodies (Quinn, 2013). Besides being detrimental to the user’s health, doping is also widely regarded as unethical. Once an athlete increases his or her performance through doping, other athletes feel compelled to do the same in order to keep up (Horton, n.d.). As a result, athletes will no longer be competing to measure their abilities but rather who can artificially enhance their bodies more in order to win. Hence, what we see from the athletes may not be an actual reflection of their true abilities. Naturally, the public abhors doping as they feel that they are being cheated by their favourite athletes. One such example would be the Lance Armstrong doping incident where he is stripped of his seven Tour de France titles and barred from cycling for life. Although some were still sympathetic towards his situation, the vast majority of the public were disillusioned as they felt cheated by his feats (“Some Livestrong Donors”, 2012).

3.2 Socioeconomic impact

The use of technology in sports will bring about socioeconomic implications on society. Firstly, sports equipment that makes use of the latest technology will not come cheap. Hence, it will only be affordable to the elite and rich athletes. Without any sponsors, poor athletes will then be unable to afford them. Consequently, they are at a disadvantage at the technology front. This can lead to a vicious cycle where only the rich will have access to these technologies. The poorer athletes will then be unable to compete on equal footing with the richer athletes regardless of their aptitude for the sport. If not monitored properly, this could lead to a divide between the haves and the have-nots. Athletes from richer backgrounds or more affluent countries will dominate the top of the charts for their respective sports while athletes from poorer backgrounds will find it increasingly difficult to break into the professional scene. As a result, poorer athletes will have an even slimmer chance of freeing themselves from the poverty cycle.

Many sports rules committees want to prevent this from happening so as to let all athletes compete on a more equal footing. Hence, a more reasonable compromise is to keep their sport affordable to many athletes, rather than to the elite few. An example would be disc wheels which were initially banned from bicycling competition in the Olympics because they were so costly that most cyclists found them unaffordable (Froes, 1997). Even for the Paralympics, there is the issue of advanced technology and high costs. The wheelchairs incorporate the use of aerospace carbon fibres and titanium into their design. Its suspension is also computer designed and specially customised for the athlete. In addition, there is a specific chair for each sport. Tennis wheelchairs are built with sharply angled back wheels so the athlete can move rapidly from side to side. Basketball wheelchairs have highly propped seats while the point guard have more slant in their wheelchairs to enable them to rotate quickly. The price of each of these wheelchairs will easily hit $3,000 USD (Froes, 1997). Therefore, sport committees have to keep an eye on the price of such equipment to ensure that it does not become too unaffordable for the common athlete.

3.3 Future Technological Controversies

Having considered the legal and ethical issues, as well as the socioeconomic impacts that technology brings to sports, there will still be some grey areas in the use of technology that remains controversial. One such area worth discussing will be the use of prosthetics in sports. Currently, disabled athletes can choose to compete in the Olympics and history has shown that many have done so before with assistance from prosthetic limbs (Paramaguru, 2012). One such example would be Oscar Pistorius who made history in 2012 by becoming the first double amputee to compete in the Olympics (Paramaguru, 2012). Moreover, at the current rate of development, engineers believe that prosthetic limbs will soon enable disabled athletes to run faster than their able-bodied counterparts (“Paralympians to out-perform”, 2012). When that happens, it would not be fair to able-bodied athletes if the prosthetic limbs of disabled athletes provide such a huge advantage for them.

Hence, although it may seem harsh and discriminatory, the author feels that a clear criterion should be set up for athletes to participate in the Olympics and disabled athletes who rely heavily on the use of prosthetics should be confined to the Paralympics. The criterion can then be decided by the sporting federations. This way, it will not be the technology but people that is competing against one another. There will also not be instances where both disabled and able-bodied athletes use technology excessively in order to get an edge over one another. The beauty and fairness of sports will then be maintained.

4 Conclusion

In summary, technology has always been used in sports. However, it is only recently that this issue has come into the spotlight because of the realization of the infinite possibilities of technology. Currently, there have been significant improvements in the sophistication of technology that is being applied to sports. Thus, we have to handle the implications that these new technological advancements bring. On one hand, although they can assist athletes in breaking records and to improve their performances, we must be firm to not let technology overtake our human touch. After all, what we want to see is not technology, but rather humans competing against one another in the sporting arena. Only when this fairness is achieved in the sporting arena can we truly enjoy watching the sports that we love.

5 References

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